Film Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Film Journal - Essay Example Moreover, there is Gorge, who has shown the interest of marrying Tracy. Moreover, we have the family of Tracy, and that is; Margaret, Dinah and Seth Lord. Also, there is the boss of the Spy magazine by the Kidd among other characters featured in the film. However, the primary objective of this study is to examine the plot Philadelphia story critically as well an analysis of the principal characters in the film. The director of the film introduces us to the Main characters by showing us their character traits. For instance, the director presents Cary Grant as a violent character in the play. His violence features are seen when he pushes Tracy down in their time of divorce. Moreover, Cary is seen to gullible for Kidd blackmails him to sneak Ruth and Jimmy ( Liz and Mike) to the mansion impersonating to be Junius, the son of Seth. On the other hand, Katherine is presented to be a violent and temperamental individual. Her characters are clearly seen when she smashes Dexter’s suitcase at the doorway during their separation. Besides, Catherine is seen to be arrogant towards other people’s weakness. On the other hand, Ruth is introduced as a secretive because of her silence on her last divorce and at the same time she is presented as a loving parson. Costume changes in the film have contributed a lot towards the presentation of the real characters, more so the ladies. The designer of costumes in Philadelphia story (Adrian) has a lot of positive comments as well as an excellent reputation for his great influence in the female fashion industry. For instance, provision of men’s wear to Katherine was the first most revolutionary thing that he did in the introduction of the film. Therefore, putting on means’ wear depicted Katherine to be a strong woman who can handle any challenge before her. Therefore, the designer designed Katherine’s’ clothes in that, they can show her braveness.

Supply and demand Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Supply and demand - Essay Example Logically, this will ensure maintenance in the revenues. It is evident that elastic demand is dependent on sensitive buyers compared to inelastic demand all influencing shifts in the quantity of units consumed. Cross price elasticity of demand ensues when the unit prices of a certain good escalate thus forcing an increment on the demand for a different product (Anderson, 2006).CPEoD= (%Δ. Therefore, CPEoD affects demand of substitutes since an increment in the price of a product (x), leads to increment for the product Y’s price, its substitute. CPEoD influences complementary goods on the basis that an increment or decrement in the demand of one product equally affects the other since they are consumed together (Benassy, 2008). Substitute goods refer to products whose utility supplements the function of another product. For instance, one can substitute tea with coffee. Therefore, increase in tea price while the price of coffee is constant results to high demand of coffee (Anderson, 2006). On the other hand, complements are goods that are not necessary and therefore, increase in their price leads to low demand. For instance, dà ©cor and design, which enhances serene of a place, amount to complementary goods (Benassy, 2008). Income elasticity of products’ demand measures the relationship that exists between change in quantity of demand and income change. A rise of income leads to increase in demand of certain products or vice versa. Normal goods always bring a positive elasticity of demand therefore, as income rises, demand also increases (Anderson, 2006). On the other hand, inferior goods results in a negative income of elasticity of product demand. Demand decreases as income increases. The availability of substitute product is the most determinant of cost elasticity of demand. The more goods and services have better substitutes, the more the demand is elastic for those goods and services. For instance, an increment in coffee prices

Shakespeare Othello Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Shakespeare Othello - Essay Example The film is presented in the same environment featuring the violent, catching and emotional story of friendship, love and betrayal. In Burge’s film, this quality is intensified and told in a passionate manner. In the film, Othello compares to the original Othello in Shakespeare’s play. Olivier plays the role of Othello in Blackface. Burge makes Olivier adopt an exotic accent, introduce a special walking style and speak in a deeper voice incomparable to his normal voice. He shows excellent leadership skills and a bright future. He dates Maggie Smith who acts as Desdemona (Fischlin and Fortier 234). In one interview Burger said, â€Å"†¦I found the strength of the movie is that you play the plot and situation as straight forward as you can. Essentially it's an action thriller, but you've thrown Rowan Atkinson in the mix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚  Just like the original play, Othello by Shakespeare, the heinous villain is a person who is a very close friend to Olivier. Frank F inley, representing Lago has gained trust and loyalty from Olivier as his best friend. The fact that Olivier has trust from the people makes Hugo feel bad because of the praises he gets from the public. This makes Lago develop a desire to destroy Olivier. Lago manipulates Olivier and makes him doubt the love and fidelity of Maggie smith towards him. When this gets out of hand, Olivier decides to murder Maggie and commits suicide after that.  Othello, as directed by Oliver Parker has almost the approach towards the play.   The setting is fifty percent of the original play and involves a black police officer who has gained praise in his department because of his integrity, competence at work and valuable principles. The main difference involves lopping of Shakespeare’s original text from the actual screenplay. Laurence Fishburn acts as Moor Othello. He is the commissioner responsible to confrontation of the Turkish army at Cyprus. Nathaniel Parker acting as Cassio and Iago are always the right-hand man men of Othello. Iago is not as faithful to him as Othello thinks he is. Because of his rage, hatred and jealousy, Jago decides to plot an issue that would cause Othello’

The Business Perspective of the Apple Company Term Paper

The Business Perspective of the Apple Company - Term Paper Example The brand value of the company is incomplete in today’s world. Effective use of technology provides the company with brand recognition, enabling it to stand out among its competitors. The collaborative work of its employees has paved the way for the success of the company, which follows a collaborative work culture. Apple Inc. is recognized as the biggest start-up in the world, formed by the efficient hands of Steve Jobs. There are frequent team meetings in each department in order to discuss the current business scenario, and the company values and encourages the participation of its team members in the decision-making processes. Apple has a reputation of valuing individuality and excellence that help in the company’s decision making (Apple Inc, 2012). Products/services and geographic scope Formerly named Apple Computer Inc., the company is an American multinational corporation which specializes in the design and sale of electronic goods and high-technology personal co mputers, along with computer software. The best-known products of the company are the Macintosh series of computers and the iPhone. In 2007, the company shifted from offering only computers towards making and selling consumer electronics. In terms of market capitalization, it is the largest public limited company. The company manages its business on a geographic basis, with five operating segments, in America, Japan, Europe, and some other regions. The operating segment offers similar hardware as well as software products (Datamonitor, 2009:3). Competitors Apple Inc operates its business in multiple industries, the main one of which is personal computers. Apart from this, the company produces software and consumer electronics. In the personal computer industry, Apple’s main competitors are IBM, Hewlett Packard, Dell Inc. etc. In the consumer electronics industry, the main market competitor is Samsung, which has a similar type of product on the market; Apple has also been faci ng competition in developing countries. Apple’s direct competitors are Google, Microsoft, and RIMM (Research in Motion Limited).

Why Do We Need To Eat Healthy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Why Do We Need To Eat Healthy - Essay Example Healthy eating does not in any way mean any sort of diet; it actually refers to the proper intake of healthy foods like meat, vegetables, fruits, and nuts, whole grains etc in balanced proportions. All these will provide us with the required amount of carbohydrates, fats and vitamins and minerals and never induce any health problem when taken moderately. Firstly, there is a need to eat healthy to avoid serious diseases. Regardless of the age, healthy eating habits have a crucial impact on our health. Long standing studies have established a definite link between diet and cardiovascular diseases. Cases of coronary heart disease are on the rise and the cardiovascular morbidity figures are staggering. Studies have made it clear the high amount of fat intake, particularly LDL or low density lipoprotein and triglycerides, increases the chances of developing coronary diseases like atherosclerosis. On the other hand a diet that provides you with a good amount of HDL can help decrease the ch olesterol levels in the body. High fiber grains can help lower chances of heart disease and type 2 diabetes ( F.B Hu and Willet, 2002).Decrease in cholesterol levels itself has a lot of good impact on the body- chances of CVD (cardio vascular diseases) are lowered, blood sugar and hyper tension problems are also controlled. Dietary fat also increases the risk of developing certain types of cancer like breast cancer, esophageal, stomach and prostate cancer and has been supported by animal studies too. Most forms of cancers, have been linked to obesity and lack of proper nutrition and according to the National Cancer Institute, most of these cancer forms are preventable. Immunity is one of the basic tools for survival. Humans are immune to many pathogens simply because of the presence of white blood cells like NK cells in the body, which engulf the antigen and protect the body from harm. In case human did not have this immunity barrier, they would become vulnerable to all diseases and may even die owing to even small and minor infections. The key to a strong immune system is an intake of healthy diet. Colas, pizzas, burgers do not increase immunity in anyway. But intake of healthy foods like vegetables and fruits provides beta-carotene which in turn strengthens the body. In recent studies cancer experts have also found out that healthy eating and strong immunity also prevent development of certain cancers. There are a number of diseases that are caused due to nutritional deficiencies. Nutritional deficiencies occur when proper balanced food is not ingested. Beriberi, pellagra, scurvy, rickets, Ariboflavinosis, Skin diseases, Hypocobalaminemia, Paraesthesia and night blindness are some of the diseases related to vitamin deficiency. Painful chronic Gouty arthritis is another dreadful disease caused by bad eating habits. Deficiency of essential minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium etc leads to diseases. If proper healthy habits are not developed a person will from health problems Scientific studies have shown that our mental health also depends on dietary factors. Minor depression, major depression, psychotic depression, traumatic disorders, stress disorders, compulsive behaviors, and anxiety are some of the mental problems that haunt a person. Though most of these diseases depend on genetic, biological and psychological factors but studies have determined that foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids ,release serotonins in the brain which in turn elevates mood.

Cultural Diversity in the Media Essay Example for Free

Cultural Diversity in the Media Essay The term drugs refer to anything, which is not prepared by organisms and is generally considered that drugs are not part of food we eat. Although drugs also refer to Medical ailments (pills, syrups, capsules etc) but here we are discussing recreational drugs which are: LSD, Shrooms, Alcohol, Caffeine, Catnip, Salvia, Cocaine, Crack, DXM, Ecstasy, Ephedrine, Heroin, Inhalants, GHB, Tobacco, Cannabis, Methamphetamine, Milk (artificially prepared), Peyote, Nutmeg, Oxycontin, Ketamine, Whiteboard Markers and so on. Drugs have its uses and abuses. But mostly, its uses are almost negligible when one starts introspection of the conditions of society caused by the abuses of Drugs. Societies are damaging because of evils of the alarming increase in the intake of drugs all over the world, which is followed by the increase in crime and decrease in national income. It has been surveyed that people portray abnormal, illegal and ruthless behaviors after intake of drugs. Alcohols being widely available in societies of west provide easy hand in the provision of drugs. In America alone, every third child is said to be tainted by the drugs. All teens see some type of drug use or abuse in school or in the media. â€Å"The nineteenth-century explosion of drug use had gotten out of hand. Wiliam Halsted invented nerve-block anesthesia with cocaine (1885) but developed such a craving for the drug that his friends had to put him aboard a schooner for several months so he could kick the habit. He did, but became addicted to morphine from the ships supplies. It was long a closely guarded secret at Johns Hopkins University that one of the institutions founders was a junkie. Halsteds student, James Leonard Corning, invented spinal anesthesia with cocaine. Every family has a vicious drunkard dad or uncle on the loose; mournful mamas swigged patent medicines by the gallon; kids raised on heroin cough syrup graduated to coca-filled soft drinks. † Increasing display of drugs as element of â€Å"Being cool†, â€Å"Easy money†, â€Å"Failure in love†, â€Å"Family problems†, â€Å"Peer Pressures† and â€Å"Complexes†, in movies is grasping the attraction of teens and young adults. â€Å"An estimated 66. 5 million Americans 12 years or older reported current use of a tobacco product in 2001. This number represents 29. 5 percent of the population. Youth cigarette use in 2001 was slightly below the rate for 2000, continuing a downward trend since 1999. † Rates of youth cigarette use were 14. 9 percent in 1999, 13. 4 percent in 2000, and 13. 0 percent in 2001. The annual number of new daily smokers age 12 to 17 decreased from 1. 1 million in 1997 to 747,000 in 2000. This translates into a reduction from 3,000 to 2,000 in the number of new youth smokers per day. † Some of the most important movies to display drugs as an inspiration for live life, business and culture are given with their detail account of criticism and background. 1. The Blow The Blow was released in 2001 was based on a true story. The story of George Jung, the man who established the American cocaine market in the 1970s. It was directed by Ted Demme. The screenplay is by Nick Cassavetes and David McKenna. It is story of young man of middle class family struggling for a better place in society, which unfortunately do not turn out be very fruitful for the fate of the family. George then moved to California, where he starts his own business in which he finds both success and imprisonment. In prison, he meets a cellmate who introduces him into a partnership to the lucrative new market in cocaine. When George Jung released from jail he quickly becomes instrumental in establishing the exploding US market for cocaine in which he claimed that he handled about 85% of the supply in the 1970s. Although it was a movie that could be presented as a masterpiece for the awareness of the society, the movie missed its attempt. The death of the hero was tragic but his appearance in the movie appealed the young generation to a great extent. â€Å"Blow outlines the lifestyle of a mega-rich smuggler — the border crossings, the ruthless negotiations, the sudden betrayals, the wild characters, the run-ins with the justice system, the inherent problems in dealing with massive amounts of cash, the temptations — and, ultimately, the tragedy of blowing all of your dreams for greed. † 2. Trainspotting This Academy Award nominated movies was produced in 1996. Denny boyle directed it. This movie was based on a novel â€Å"Trainspotting† by Irvine Welsh. The screenplay was adapted from Welshs novel by John Hodge. This movie begins with the narration by Renton, who is a rent boy, he tell others that they should choose to live traditional family life. After his narration he tells that his train of thoughts ends with â€Å"who needs reason when you’ve got heroin? † all of his friend were addicted to drugs. The movie rotates all about dirty drugs business and its dealings. The movies most critical part is when Renton leaves drug addiction he feels no purpose of life. He then also deals in selling the heroin. Later Renton realizes that his friends are no his friends at all and leave them for a better life. â€Å"Its release sparked controversy in some countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States, as to whether it promoted drug use or not. U. S. Senator, Bob Dole, decried its moral depravity and glorification of drug use during the 1996 U. S. presidential campaign, although he admitted that he had not actually seen the film. † 3. The basket ball diaries This movie was produced in 1995 and was directed by Scott Kalvert. It was written by Brian Goluboff. The movie is an autobiographical account of poet and rock musician Jim Carroll. The running time of movie was 105 minutes. As a member of an outwardly invincible high school basketball squad, Jims life centers around the basketball court and the court becomes an allegory for the world in his mind. It was biggest dream of Jim to become Star of basketball. He was Catholic high school student but later become drug addict due to bad company. Jim and his friends roam the streets of New York City as trivial thieves and revolts. Soon school expelled the Jim for he took drugs before game. Later Jim faces more trouble when his family throws him. This movie is a critical for most of its scene describing, â€Å"A youth (a mere school boy of age 13) is enjoying the drugs† and hence portrayed that it is not very offensive of a young boy or girl to take drugs in that age specially. â€Å"This movie contained incredibly dark and vulgar guided imagery which could quite possibly lead the impressionable into moral and value modification, poor coping skills, and dangerous decision-making. † 4. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas The movie Fear and Loating in Las Vegas was released on May 22, 1998. It was directed by Terry Gilliam. This film was based on Hunter S. Thompsons 1971 novel Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream. Journalist Raoul Duke and attorney Dr. Gonzo travel from Los Angeles, California to Las Vegas, Nevada in 1971 to cover a motorcycle race for a sports magazine and enjoy a haphazardly planned vacation. Fueled by the massive amount of drugs they purchased with an advance from a magazine to cover a sporting event in Vegas; they set out in the Red Shark. Wreak havoc upon the citizens of Las Vegas. Encountering police, reporters, gamblers, racers, and hitchhikers; they search for some indefinable thing know only as the American Dream and find fear, loathing and hilarious adventures into the dementia of the modern American West. The movie is filled with violence and drugs series. It effected the audience to en extent that even an incident got attached to it. During shooting Gilliam was approached by a group of young men, one of which complimented him on the film in general, but said that his favorite scene was the andrenichrome scene. He said that he had used the drug and that Gilliam had captured the effects perfectly. Gilliam didnt have the heart to tell the kid that it was made up, and went along with his story. 5. Dazed and confused Dazed and confused is a 1993 American film written and directed by Richard Linklater. The movie tells the stories of the last day of school in May 1976 in a Texas suburb. As the movie begins, the last day of school at a high school is beginning. The last day at Robert E. Lee High School proceeds with regular classes but the soon-to-be-senior class (Class of 1977) is more interested in getting ready for the annual hazing of the incoming freshman class, which will take place after school. The hazing is depicted as a ritualized event that has the support of the town, in the movie. Randall Pink Floyd was a football player who moves with simplistic grace among groups of greasers, nerds, stoners, and athletes alike. The coaches introduced a new policy for the upcoming 1976-77 school year in which athletes have to sign a written pledge that they will not use alcohol or illegal drugs. Pink refuses to sign the pledge sheet. The coach berates Randall Floyd for hanging out with that other crowd (referring to his stoner friends) and Floyd takes offense to it. â€Å"The movie conspicuously shows the much more relaxed attitudes toward both teenage alcohol consumption and driving with open beer containers at the time; Kramer can easily buy beer as the lawful Texas drinking age at the time was 18 and even that was lightly enforced. † References 1. http://www. thc-ministry. net/history-of-drugs. html 2. http://www. getsomeblow. com/index2. html 3. http://parentingteens. about. com/cs/drugsofabuse/a/druguse10_2. htm 4. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Trainspotting_(film) 5. ChildCare Action Project: Christian Analysis of American Culture (CAP) by Thomas A. Carder http://www. capalert. com/capreports/basketballdiaries/basketballdiaries. htm 6. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Fear_and_Loathing_in_Las_Vegas_%28film%29 7. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Dazed_and_Confused_(film)

The motivation theories used by management

The motivation theories used by management This chapter provides a brief outline of motivation, types of motivation, major motivation theories and leadership theories on increasing employee motivation. Lastly this chapter identifies the impact of employee motivation on the productivity of the company. 2.2 Motivation The level of performance of employees relies not only on their actual skills but also on the level of motivation each person exhibits (Burney et al., 2007). Motivation is an inner drive or an external inducement to behave in some particular way, typically a way that will lead to rewards (Dessler,1978). Over-achieving, talented employees are the driving force of all firms so it is essential that organizations strive to motivate and hold on to the best employees (Harrington, 2003). The success of any business depends largely on the motivation of the employees.  Every person has their own set of motivations and personal incentives to work hard or not as the case may be. Some are motivated by recognition while others are motivated by cash incentives. Motivation can be internal or external. Deadlines are an example of external motivation. The fear of losing a contract or of not finishing a job you started is an example of internal motivation. Both internal and external motivation can be equally powerful. Financial Motivation is money, incentives, bonus, commission, fame and recognition which are External and Monetary benefits or Non-Financial Motivators like pride, sense of achievement, responsibility, belief, challenge and interesting job, Respect which are Internal. Perhaps the most significant impact of increased employee motivation is that of increased productivity. This is a central aim when adopting an incentive program. If you can increase employee motivation, productivity will follow and with that the inevitable increased bottom line. Table 1 Four most powerful types of motivation Type of Motivation Description Intrinsic motivation Satisfaction in the work itself (pleasure, stimulation, learning etc) Extrinsic motivation Rewards for doing the work (money, promotion, perks etc) Personal motivation Individual values (a love of knowledge, power, security, self-expression etc) Interpersonal motivation The influence of other people (competition, collaboration, commitments etc) Human beings are multifaceted creatures, and we are typically motivated by a mixture of all four elements. This diagram can help make sense of this complexity The types of motivation combine to produce four key areas to focus on when trying to motivate people. For example, prior to taking a work, employee will most likely to have a minimum anticipation in terms of pay and opportunities for career progress (personal rewards). You will also want to be certain that it offers you an opportunity to use your skills, learn and stretch yourself in pursuit of a meaningful challenge (personal satisfaction). Probability are you will also want to be given due recognition for your involvement (public recognition). And given how long you are going to spend in the group of your co-workers, you will probably want them to be interesting and enjoyable company (social interaction). Combining different forms of motivation will have the biggest impact on performance. Taking a more balanced approach to motivation will also help you develop better relationships with everyone on your team. How to Motivate People During a Recession Deci and Ryan (2000) conducted and replicated an experiment that showed the negative impact of monetary rewards on intrinsic motivation and performance. A group of college students were asked to work on an interesting puzzle. Some were paid and some were not paid for the work. The students that were not being paid worked longer on the puzzle and found it more interesting than the students being paid. When the study was brought into a workplace setting, employees felt that their behavior was being controlled in a dehumanizing and alienating manner by the rewards. It was discovered that rewards would seriously decrease an employees motivation to ever perform the task being rewarded, or one similar to it, any time in the future. Another observation of the study was that employees would expect a reward every time the task was to be completed if the reward was offered at one time. Employees would require the reward in order to perform the job and would probably expect the reward to increase in amount. If the rewards were not increased or if they were taken away they actually served as negative reinforcement. 2.2 Major Theories of Motivation Motivation is not only in a single direction i.e. downwards. In the present scenario, where the workforce is more informed, more aware, more educated and goal oriented, the role of motivation has left the boundaries of the hierarchy of management. The Fig below shows the major theories of motivation that can be applied in the working environment as well on the employees to see the impact of motivation on the organization as a whole. Fig shows Major theories of Motivation 2.2.1 Need Approaches Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Fig Shows Maslows Hierarchy of Needs If motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow/ By applying Maslows theory of motivation, modern leaders and managers find way of employee motivation for the purpose of employee and workforce management. The basis of Maslows theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be addressed. As per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly. These needs were dubbed deficiency needs. While a person is motivated to fulfill these basal desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually self-actualization. http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp As a result, for adequate workplace  motivation, it is important that  leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslows model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called Maslows Needs Pyramid or Maslows Needs Triangle, when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. http://www.abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp Table 2 shows Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Needs Example Biological and Physiological needs Air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc Safety needs Protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and Love needs Work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs Self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc Self-Actualization needs Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Source: http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm Alderfers ERG Theory Fig: Clayton Alderfers ERG Theory Needs Source:http://www.envisionsoftware.com/es_img/Alderfer_ERG_Theory.gif If the ERG theory holds, then unlike with Maslows theory, managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs to satisfy simultaneously. Furthermore, if growth opportunities are not provided to employees, they may regress to relatedness needs. If the manager is able to recognize this situation, then steps can be taken to concentrate on relatedness needs until the subordinate is able to pursue growth again. http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/ob/motivation/erg/ Herzbergs Two Factor Theory Fig: Hygiene and Motivation Factors Source:http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/figures/1472-6920-9-49-1.jpg The psychologist Fredrick Herzberg asked the questions from employees in the year 1950s and 60s for understanding employee satisfaction. He set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by asking people to describe the circumstances where they felt really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad. Herzbergs findings revealed that certain characteristics of a job are consistently related to job satisfaction, while different factors are associated with job dissatisfaction shown in Fig? The conclusion he drew is that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites. The opposite of Satisfaction is No Satisfaction. The opposite of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction To apply Herzbergs theory, managers need to adopt a two stage process to motivate people. Firstly, managers need eliminate the dissatisfactions the employees are experiencing and, secondly, managers need to help them find satisfaction. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_74.htm McClellands Learned Needs Theory One of McClellands most well known theories is that human motivation is dominated by three needs. McClellands theory, sometimes referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory, categorizes the needs as follows; The need for achievement The need for power The need for affiliation The importance of each of these needs will vary from one person to another. If the manager can determine the importance of each of these needs to an individual, it will help the managers to decide how to influence that individual. McClelland asserted that a persons needs are influenced by their cultural background and life experiences. He also asserted that the majority of these needs can be classified as the needs for affiliation, achievement or power. A persons motivation and effectiveness can be increased through an environment, which provides them with their ideal mix of each of the three needs. http://www.learnmanagement2.com/DavidMcClelland.htm 2.2.2 Cognitive Approach Expectancy Theory The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they have certain expectation. Individuals choose behaviors based on the outcomes they expect and the values they ascribe to those expected outcomes (Borders 2004). Vrooms Expectancy theory is based upon the following three variables which he calls Valence, Expectancy and Instrumentality valances (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Valence refers to the value an individual personally places on the reward or upon the expected outcome of a situation. The Valence is high if the reward available is of interest to us. When you have a higher valence you tend to have higher motivation (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Expectancy is the belief that your efforts will result in attainment of the desired performance. This belief is generally based on an individuals past experience, self confidence. Expectancy would be zero if an individual felt it were impossible to achieve a given performance level (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006). Instrumentality is the belief that the success of the situation is linked to the expected outcome of the situation, e.g. its gone really well, so Id expect praise. It is also the belief that if one meets the performance expectations, he or she will receive a greater reward. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Riston Scott-Ladd 2006) Equity Theory/ Social Comparison Theory Source: http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm According to Equity theory the employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others (Shown in Fig). If an employee perceives her ratio to be equal to those of relevant others, a state of equity exists. In other words, she perceives that her situation is fair-that justice prevails. However, if the ratio is unequal, inequity exists and she views herself as under rewarded or over rewarded. Source: http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm Goal Setting Theory of Motivation Goal-setting theory focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects. Goal-setting theory is found within the field of organizational behavior; however, it can be applied to any general area where goals may be achieved. http://www.ehow.com/about_5382265_goalsetting-theory-motivation.html Source: http://faculty.washington.edu/janegf/goalsetting.html In order to direct ourselves we set ourselves goals that are: Clear (not vague) and understandable, so we know what to do and what not to do. Challenging, so we will be stimulated and not be bored. Achievable, so we are unlikely to fail. If other people set us goals without our involvement, then we are much less likely to be motivated to work hard at it than if we feel we have set or directed the goal ourselves.http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/goals.htm 2.2.3 REINFORCEMENT THEORY Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action. External environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individuals behaviour. http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm Table 3: Reinforcement schedule Apply Withhold Reward positive reinforcement (raise above baseline) negative reinforcement (raise up to baseline) Stressor punishment (bring down below baseline) extinction (stay at baseline) Source: http://motivationcentre.blogspot.com/2006/03/reinforcement-theory.html Table 4 Types of Reinforcement Types of Reinforcement Description Positive reinforcement This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behavior. Ex. You make a sale, you get a commission. You do a good job; you get a bonus a promotion. Negative reinforcement This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required behaviour. Extinction It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour Punishment It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behaviour. For instance Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules. Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm 2.3 Leadership Style Influencing Motivation Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people (Kurt Lewin,1939). Leadership Style influences the level of motivation of employees. Different Leaders have different style for managing the employees working under them. Fig explains the style of leadership influencing the motivation of employees. Fig: Leadership Style Vs motivation Source: http://www.motivation-tools.com/workplace/leadership_styles.htm